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7 Essential Facts About Testosterone Therapy for Women

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date September 30, 2026

7 Essential Facts About Testosterone Therapy for Women

When women think about hormone changes during perimenopause and menopause, estrogen and progesterone usually get most of the attention. But women naturally produce testosterone too, and it plays an important role in female health and sexual function.

At Axios Health & Wellness, women often ask about testosterone after noticing changes in sexual desire, energy, motivation, or simply feeling different than they did several years ago. These symptoms deserve a thoughtful evaluation because hormones are only one possible piece of the picture.

Testosterone therapy for women in Longmont may be appropriate for select patients. Understanding what testosterone does, why levels change, potential benefits, and how therapy is monitored can help women make informed decisions about their hormone health.

Testosterone is often thought of as a male hormone, but women produce it too. In women, androgens come from the ovaries and adrenal glands and from the conversion of hormone precursors in other tissues. Testosterone plays a role in normal female physiology, particularly sexual function.

Testosterone levels change throughout a woman’s lifetime. However, the relationship between a woman’s blood testosterone level and how she feels is not always straightforward. There is no single testosterone level that determines whether a woman needs treatment.

This is why laboratory results should be considered alongside symptoms, medical history, medications, sleep, stress, relationship factors, and other hormonal changes.

Why Are Women Asking About Testosterone Therapy?

Many women begin researching testosterone during perimenopause or menopause. They may notice decreased sexual interest, lower motivation, fatigue, changes in exercise performance, or a general sense that they no longer feel like themselves.

These symptoms are important, but they can have more than one cause.

Poor sleep, thyroid disorders, iron deficiency, depression, chronic stress, medication side effects, changing estrogen levels, and relationship concerns can cause similar symptoms. A comprehensive evaluation can help identify the factors that may be contributing and provide a clearer picture of which treatment options may be appropriate.

What Are the Potential Benefits of Testosterone Therapy for Women?

Research on testosterone therapy in women has focused primarily on sexual health. Studies have found that appropriately selected postmenopausal women experiencing persistently low sexual desire may experience improvements in sexual desire, arousal, pleasure, responsiveness, and satisfaction with testosterone therapy.

Women receiving testosterone may also describe changes in energy, motivation, mood, exercise performance, or their overall sense of well-being. Individual experiences can vary considerably, which is one reason hormone therapy should be tailored to each woman’s symptoms and goals.

When a woman is considering testosterone, the conversation should focus on her specific symptoms, health history, goals, and other factors that may be affecting how she feels.

Testosterone Therapy for Women in Longmont Should Be Individualized

When considering testosterone therapy for women in Longmont, treatment should begin with a comprehensive evaluation rather than a laboratory result alone.

An evaluation may include symptoms, menstrual and menopause history, current hormone therapy, medications, medical history, sexual health, and overall wellness. Other potential causes of symptoms should also be considered.

Laboratory testing can provide useful information before treatment and during follow-up. However, a testosterone result alone does not diagnose sexual dysfunction or automatically establish whether testosterone therapy is appropriate.

Instead, laboratory results become one part of a larger clinical picture. Follow-up also gives women an opportunity to discuss changes in symptoms, concerns, and how they are responding to their treatment plan.

What About Testosterone During Perimenopause?

Perimenopause can be especially confusing because several hormonal changes may occur at the same time.

Women may experience irregular periods, hot flashes, disrupted sleep, changes in sexual desire, vaginal symptoms, mood changes, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating. Changing estrogen and progesterone patterns may contribute to many of these symptoms, while testosterone and other health factors may also be part of the overall picture.

This is why hormone care during perimenopause should be individualized rather than based on one symptom or laboratory value.

For some women, evaluating testosterone may be one part of a broader hormone assessment. The goal is to understand which symptoms are most disruptive, identify other possible contributors, and discuss treatment options based on the woman’s individual needs and goals.

Monitoring Testosterone Therapy Matters

Testosterone therapy should include ongoing follow-up.

Monitoring allows the patient and clinician to discuss whether symptoms are improving, review laboratory results when appropriate, and determine whether adjustments to the treatment plan are needed.

Testosterone can cause androgen-related effects, particularly when exposure becomes excessive. These may include acne, increased facial or body hair, or scalp hair thinning.

Regular follow-up provides an opportunity to identify unwanted effects, evaluate the patient’s response, and make changes when necessary. This ongoing communication between the patient and clinician is an important part of individualized hormone care.

Testosterone Is Only One Part of Women's Hormone Health

Hormone care works best when the entire clinical picture is considered.

A woman experiencing low sexual desire may also have vaginal discomfort, poor sleep, medication side effects, relationship stress, depression, thyroid dysfunction, or symptoms related to changing estrogen levels. Addressing only testosterone may not address everything contributing to how she feels.

The same is true for fatigue, changes in motivation, and brain fog. These symptoms can have many possible causes and deserve a broader evaluation.

A comprehensive approach can help identify contributing factors and create a treatment plan that reflects the individual woman’s symptoms, health history, and goals.

Considering Testosterone Therapy for Women in Longmont?

Women deserve accurate information about their hormones and treatment options rather than being told that changes in how they feel are simply part of getting older.

At Axios Health & Wellness, hormone care begins with understanding your symptoms, medical history, goals, and overall hormonal picture. Testosterone therapy for women in Longmont may be one consideration for appropriately selected patients, and treatment should be tailored to the individual woman.

If you are experiencing changes in sexual health, energy, motivation, or other symptoms during perimenopause or menopause, a comprehensive hormone evaluation can help identify possible contributing factors and determine which treatment options may be appropriate for you.

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Jay and Lacey are board-certified Family Nurse Practitioners and hormone optimization specialists at Axios Health & Wellness. Together, they bring decades of clinical experience in hormone replacement therapy, thyroid optimization, peptide therapy, medical weight loss, and regenerative medicine.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

Can women take testosterone?

Yes. Testosterone therapy may be considered for appropriately selected women following a clinical evaluation. Research has demonstrated benefits for certain women experiencing persistent changes in sexual desire and sexual function.

Does low testosterone cause fatigue in women?

Fatigue may occur alongside hormonal changes, but it can also have many other causes. Sleep problems, thyroid dysfunction, anemia, medications, chronic stress, nutrition, and other health conditions should be considered when evaluating persistent fatigue.

Can testosterone improve sexual desire in women?

Research has shown that testosterone therapy can improve sexual desire and several other aspects of sexual function in appropriately selected postmenopausal women. A complete evaluation remains important because sexual desire can be influenced by hormonal, physical, emotional, medication-related, and relationship factors.

Do testosterone levels need to be checked?

Laboratory testing can provide useful information before treatment and during follow-up. A testosterone level is best interpreted as part of the overall clinical picture rather than being used alone to determine whether a woman should receive therapy.

What should I expect after starting testosterone therapy?

Response to testosterone varies from woman to woman. Follow-up appointments allow your clinician to evaluate changes in symptoms, review laboratory testing when appropriate, discuss any unwanted effects, and adjust the treatment plan based on your individual response.

References

Davis SR, Baber R, Panay N, et al. Global Consensus Position Statement on the Use of Testosterone Therapy for Women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2019;104(10):4660–4666.

Parish SJ, Simon JA, Davis SR, et al. International Society for the Study of Women’s Sexual Health Clinical Practice Guideline for the Use of Systemic Testosterone for Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder in Women. Journal of Sexual Medicine. 2021;18(5):849–867.

The North American Menopause Society. The 2020 Genitourinary Syndrome of Menopause Position Statement of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause. 2020;27(9):976–992.

Davis SR, Wahlin-Jacobsen S. Testosterone in Women—The Clinical Significance. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2015;3(12):980–992.

Smarter Hormone Replacement Therapy in Longmont

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date September 14, 2026

Smarter Hormone Replacement Therapy in Longmont

If you are considering hormone replacement therapy in Longmont, you may assume the first step is checking your hormone levels and getting a prescription. But thoughtful hormone care should begin with a conversation. What has changed? How do you feel? What is your health history? What would you like to improve?

Hormones can affect sleep, mood, energy, body composition, menstrual patterns, temperature regulation, and bone health. But hormones are not the only possible cause of these changes. Thyroid disorders, nutritional deficiencies, medications, poor sleep, chronic stress, and other health conditions can cause similar symptoms.

At Axios Health & Wellness, our goal is not simply to prescribe hormones. We want to understand the person behind the symptoms. From there, we can determine whether hormone therapy may be an appropriate part of the treatment plan.

Step One: Start With Your Symptoms, Not Just the Numbers

If you are exploring hormone replacement therapy in Longmont, one of the most important parts of your evaluation is understanding what brought you in.

Maybe you have always slept well, but now you wake several times each night. Perhaps your periods have become unpredictable. You may feel more irritable, struggle to concentrate, experience hot flashes, or notice changes in your energy and exercise recovery.

These changes provide important clinical information.

Perimenopause and menopause do not look the same for every woman. Symptoms can vary in both type and severity. That is why an evaluation should begin with your experience, not simply a laboratory result.

Step Two: Look at the Bigger Health Picture

Before considering hormone replacement therapy in Longmont, your provider should understand your overall health. This includes your medical and family history, medications, previous surgeries, menstrual history, symptoms, and other relevant health factors.

It may also be important to look for other causes of your symptoms.

For example, persistent fatigue does not automatically mean your hormones are low. Sleep quality, thyroid function, iron status, nutrition, medications, stress, and other health conditions may play a role.

Difficulty concentrating and mood changes can also occur during the menopausal transition. But they can have causes unrelated to hormones.

Good hormone care asks a broader question:

What could be contributing to how this patient feels?

Sometimes hormones are an important part of the answer. Sometimes they are only one piece of it.

Step Three: Put Laboratory Results in Context

Laboratory testing can provide useful information. However, numbers should not be interpreted by themselves.

Hormone levels can fluctuate, especially during perimenopause. Menopause is often identified through a woman’s age, menstrual history, and symptoms rather than one hormone test.

Testing may still be useful when clinically appropriate. The key is understanding what a laboratory result can—and cannot—tell us.

At Axios Health & Wellness, we consider laboratory findings together with your symptoms and health history. We also consider your age, medications, treatment goals, and other clinical information.

The goal is not simply to make a number look better on paper. The goal is to make informed treatment decisions.

Step Four: Is Hormone Replacement Therapy in Longmont Right for You?

For women considering hormone replacement therapy in Longmont, deciding whether treatment is appropriate should come before choosing a specific therapy.

Hormone replacement therapy can be highly effective for certain menopausal symptoms. Systemic estrogen therapy, for example, is considered the most effective treatment for hot flashes and night sweats. It can also help protect against bone loss during menopause.

But hormone therapy is not automatically the right treatment for every symptom or every patient.

The benefits and risks are different for every woman. Age, symptoms, health history, family history, and timing of menopause can all influence treatment decisions. The type and route of hormone therapy also matter.

This is where shared decision-making becomes important.

Rather than asking, “How quickly can I start hormones?” consider asking:

“Based on my symptoms, health history, and goals, what treatment options make sense for me?”

Hormone therapy may be an important part of the answer. In other situations, a different approach may be more appropriate.

Step Five: Create an Individualized Treatment Plan

When considering hormone replacement therapy in Longmont, treatment should never be one-size-fits-all.

A woman’s treatment plan may depend on whether she is experiencing perimenopause or menopause. Whether she has a uterus, her most disruptive symptoms, health history, and individual risk factors can also influence treatment.

Treatment may extend beyond hormones.

Sleep, nutrition, resistance training, stress management, and other aspects of health remain important. These factors can support overall well-being whether or not hormone therapy is prescribed.

We want patients to understand what they are taking and why it has been recommended. They should also understand what we hope treatment will accomplish.

Step Six: Follow Up and Adjust

Starting treatment is not the end of hormone care.

Symptoms can change over time. Treatment needs can change too. An approach that works well today may need to be reconsidered later.

Follow-up helps us evaluate how you are responding to treatment. It is also a time to discuss side effects, concerns, and changes in your health. Treatment can then be adjusted when appropriate.

Current menopause guidelines emphasize individualized care and periodic reassessment of hormone therapy.

In other words, good hormone care is a process—not a prescription handed over after a single visit.

What Thoughtful Hormone Care Looks Like

Women searching for hormone replacement therapy in Longmont have access to more information than ever before. Unfortunately, that can also mean navigating social media claims, conflicting advice, and treatments promoted as solutions for almost every midlife symptom.

Hormone therapy can be an important and effective treatment when appropriately prescribed. But hormones are not the answer to everything. Responsible hormone care should never assume they are.

At Axios Health & Wellness, we believe good care starts with listening. It means looking at the complete clinical picture, discussing your options, and developing an individualized plan.

The prescription should come after the evaluation—not instead of it.

Ready to Start the Conversation?

If you are considering hormone replacement therapy in Longmont, a comprehensive evaluation can help you better understand your options. We can explore your symptoms, health history, and goals to determine whether hormonal changes may be playing a role.

Axios Health & Wellness
Longmont, Colorado
Phone: 720-899-9400

In-person appointments are available in Longmont, Colorado. Telehealth hormone services with Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC, are also available to patients located in Montana.

Individual treatment recommendations depend on medical history, symptoms, examination, and clinical evaluation. This article is intended for educational purposes and is not a substitute for individualized medical advice.

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

What Symptoms Might Lead Someone to Consider Hormone Therapy?

Common menopausal symptoms include hot flashes, night sweats, sleep disruption, vaginal symptoms, menstrual changes, and mood changes. Because these symptoms can have several possible causes, evaluation is important before deciding on treatment.

Can Hormone Changes Affect Sleep, Energy, and Mood?

Yes. Hormonal changes during perimenopause and menopause can affect sleep, energy, mood, and overall well-being. However, thyroid dysfunction, nutritional deficiencies, medications, chronic stress, sleep disorders, and other health conditions can cause similar symptoms.

This is one reason thoughtful hormone care looks at the entire clinical picture.

How Do I Choose Hormone Replacement Therapy in Longmont?

There is no single treatment plan that is right for everyone. When considering hormone replacement therapy in Longmont, your provider should consider your symptoms, health history, reproductive history, risk factors, and treatment goals before discussing treatment options.

How Often Should Hormone Therapy Be Reassessed?

Hormone care should include ongoing follow-up. These visits allow your provider to evaluate symptom improvement and discuss concerns or side effects.

Your needs may change over time. Periodic reassessment allows treatment to be adjusted when appropriate.

Where Can I Receive Hormone Care in Colorado or Montana?

Axios Health & Wellness provides individualized hormone evaluations and ongoing hormone management in Longmont, Colorado. Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC, also provides telehealth hormone services to patients located in Montana.

References

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Hormone Therapy for Menopause. This resource reviews menopausal hormone therapy, including potential benefits and risks and the importance of considering symptoms and personal and family medical history when making treatment decisions.
ACOG — Hormone Therapy for Menopause
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Menopause: Identification and Management (NG23). This guideline addresses the identification and management of menopause and provides recommendations for individualized care and treatment.
NICE — Menopause: Identification and Management
Lumsden MA, Dekkers OM, Faubion SS, et al. European Society of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline for Evaluation and Management of Menopause and the Perimenopause. European Journal of Endocrinology. 2025;193(4):G49–G81. doi:10.1093/ejendo/lvaf206. This guideline is particularly relevant to your article because it recommends a holistic approach rather than focusing solely on HRT and emphasizes evaluation, individualized risk assessment, shared decision-making, and follow-up.
European Society of Endocrinology — Menopause and Perimenopause Guideline
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). The Menopause Years. This patient resource discusses perimenopause, menopause, common symptoms, lifestyle considerations, and hormone therapy. The page was last reviewed in December 2025.
ACOG — The Menopause Years

Can You Recharge Aging Cells? The Science Behind NAD+ Therapy

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date September 1, 2026

Can You Recharge Aging Cells? The Science Behind NAD+ Therapy

What if some of the changes we associate with aging begin much deeper than wrinkles, muscle loss, or declining energy? Inside nearly every cell in the body is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a molecule essential for producing energy, repairing damaged DNA, regulating metabolism, and responding to cellular stress. It is not a hormone, peptide, or stimulant. It is a coenzyme that has been part of human biology all along—and researchers are increasingly interested in what happens as its availability and metabolism change with age. That interest has pushed NAD+ from the research laboratory into longevity clinics, medical practices, supplements, injections, nasal sprays, and intravenous infusions. The claims can be impressive: more energy, sharper thinking, better exercise recovery, improved mitochondrial function, and even healthier aging. There is real science behind the molecule, but that does not mean every claim surrounding therapy has been proven. Knowing something is essential to cellular health is very different from proving that giving more of it can reverse aging or restore youthful function. That is what makes this area of medicine so interesting. The biology is compelling, the therapeutic possibilities are intriguing, and clinical use has moved faster than some of the human research. The real question is not whether this molecule matters—it clearly does. The question is whether increasing its availability can meaningfully change how we feel, function, recover, and age.

What Does NAD+ Actually Do?

Every cell in your body needs energy to do its job. Your heart needs it to beat, your muscles need it to move, and your brain needs it to think and stay focused. NAD+ helps make that possible by helping your cells turn the food you eat into usable energy. Much of this happens inside the mitochondria, often described as the powerhouses of our cells.

But energy is only part of the reason NAD+ is important. Your cells are constantly dealing with everyday wear and tear. DNA gets damaged, inflammation occurs, and cells are exposed to different forms of stress. NAD+ helps support the systems your body uses to respond to that damage, make repairs, and keep cells functioning normally.

This is what makes NAD+ different from something that simply gives you a temporary energy boost. It works much deeper inside the cell, supporting both energy production and cellular repair. As we get older, those jobs become increasingly important—and that is where the connection between NAD+ and healthy aging starts to get interesting.

What Happens as We Get Older?

Our cells are constantly producing energy, repairing damage, and responding to everyday stress. As we get older, those jobs can become more demanding. Inflammation and oxidative stress tend to increase, DNA damage can accumulate, and the systems responsible for keeping our cells working efficiently may not function quite as well as they once did.

At the same time, the body may become less efficient at maintaining the molecules needed to support all of that work. Think of it like an older house: over time, there are more things that need attention, so keeping everything running well takes more effort and more resources.

This helps explain why researchers have become so interested in supporting cellular health as we age. Rather than simply looking at the outward signs of aging, the focus is shifting toward what is happening inside our cells—how well they produce energy, recover from stress, and repair themselves. NAD+ has become an important part of that conversation.

Can We Increase NAD+?

This is where things get interesting. There are several ways to try to increase what is available to our cells. Some treatments provide precursors, such as nicotinamide riboside (NR) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN), which the body can use to make NAD+. Another approach is to provide the molecule directly through an IV, injection, or nasal spray.

These options are not all the same. Oral precursors rely on the body to convert them, while IV and injectable therapy deliver the molecule more directly into the body. Nasal sprays offer another option and have attracted interest because of their potential use for brain and cognitive health.

The important part is separating what sounds promising from what has actually been shown in people. Research supports the ability of some of these approaches to increase NAD+ or related compounds in the body, but we are still learning how much that translates into noticeable improvements in energy, recovery, cognition, or healthy aging. How it is given may matter, but so does why it is being used and what we are actually trying to improve.

What Are the Potential Benefits?

Most people considering NAD+ therapy are not thinking about what is happening inside a laboratory—they want to know how they might actually feel. The most common reasons people explore treatment are low energy, slower recovery, difficulty concentrating, and supporting overall health as they get older. There is also growing interest among active adults who want to maintain exercise performance and recovery.

There are good biological reasons to study these areas. Energy production, mitochondrial function, DNA repair, and the way cells respond to stress are all connected to NAD+. Early human research has shown some promising findings in areas such as metabolic health and physical function, particularly with oral precursors, but the results have not been consistent enough to say that everyone will experience these benefits.

That makes expectations important. This is not a stimulant that should create an immediate burst of energy, and it is not an anti-aging treatment that turns back the clock. The potential value is in supporting the cellular systems that help us produce energy, recover, and function well as we age.

Is NAD+ Therapy Right for Everyone?

NAD+ therapy may be considered by people looking to support energy, recovery, cognitive function, metabolic health, or healthy aging, but it is not appropriate for everyone. Fatigue, brain fog, and poor recovery can also be signs of problems such as thyroid disease, testosterone deficiency, hormonal changes, anemia, nutrient deficiencies, or poor sleep. Those issues should not be overlooked simply because someone is interested in NAD+.

Treatment is generally avoided during pregnancy and breastfeeding because there is not enough safety information. Additional caution may be appropriate for people with active cancer or recent cancer treatment, significant kidney or liver disease, uncontrolled high blood pressure, serious heart rhythm problems, recent heart attack, unstable angina, heart failure, or other unstable medical conditions.

Side effects depend partly on how treatment is given. IV NAD+ can cause nausea, abdominal cramping, flushing, headache, increased heart rate, or chest pressure, particularly when infused too quickly. Subcutaneous injections may cause temporary burning, redness, or tenderness at the injection site, along with occasional nausea, headache, or lightheadedness. For most patients, the decision to use NAD+ should come down to a simple question: Is there a clear reason for treatment, and is there a meaningful benefit we can actually measure?

The Bottom Line

NAD+ is not a miracle anti-aging treatment, but it is much more than another wellness trend. Its role in cellular energy, mitochondrial function, DNA repair, and the way our cells respond to stress is well established. What we are still learning is how much increasing its availability can improve the way people actually feel and function.

For the right patient, NAD+ therapy may be one tool for supporting energy, recovery, metabolic health, and healthy aging. The key is using it with realistic expectations and understanding that feeling tired, foggy, or slower to recover does not automatically mean you need NAD+. Sometimes the most important step is figuring out why you feel that way in the first place.

Ready to Learn More About NAD+ Therapy?

At Axios Health & Wellness in Longmont, Colorado, we look at the bigger picture before recommending treatment. If you are interested in NAD+ for energy, recovery, cognitive health, or healthy aging, we can help determine whether it makes sense for your goals and discuss the different treatment options available.

Schedule a consultation with Axios Health & Wellness to learn whether NAD+ therapy may be a good fit for you.

Call: 720-819-7334
Visit: axioshealthandwellness.com

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently asked questions

How long does it take to notice a difference from NAD+ therapy?

There is no established timeline, and responses can vary. Some patients report noticing changes in energy, mental clarity, or recovery relatively early, while others may notice little or no difference. This is one reason treatment should be based on specific goals rather than assuming everyone will respond the same way.

Is NAD+ better as an IV, injection, or nasal spray?

There is currently no good human evidence showing that one route is best for everyone. IV therapy delivers a larger amount directly into circulation, while subcutaneous injections are more convenient and can be used in smaller amounts over time. Nasal preparations are also available, although human research on this route remains limited.

How often is NAD+ therapy typically given?

Frequency depends on the route, treatment goals, and how well someone tolerates therapy. IV treatments may be given periodically, while subcutaneous therapy can be administered more frequently in smaller amounts. There is not yet a universally accepted medical dosing schedule for NAD+ therapy.

Can NAD+ therapy be used with hormone or peptide therapy?

NAD+ may be used as part of a broader treatment plan that includes hormone therapy, peptide therapy, nutrition, exercise, or metabolic care. Whether combining therapies makes sense depends on the patient’s health, medications, goals, and the reason each treatment is being used.

Do I need blood work before starting NAD+ therapy?

There is no specific blood test required to determine whether someone needs NAD+, and there is no established blood NAD+ target used routinely in clinical practice. Depending on a patient’s health and the type of therapy being considered, a provider may review or obtain basic laboratory testing before treatment.

References

Covarrubias AJ, Perrone R, Grozio A, et al. NAD+ metabolism and its roles in cellular processes during ageing. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology

Covarrubias AJ, Kale A, Perrone R, et al. Senescent cells promote tissue NAD+ decline during ageing via the activation of CD38+ macrophages. Nature Metabolism.

Katsyuba E, Romani M, Hofer D, et al. NAD+ homeostasis in health and disease. Nature Metabolism

Yoshino M, Yoshino J, Kayser BD, et al. Nicotinamide mononucleotide increases muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women. Science.

Gallagher C, Emmanuel OO. NAD+ supplementation for anti-aging and wellness: A PRISMA-guided systematic review of preclinical and clinical evidence. Ageing Research Reviews

From Gut Health to Inflammation and Beyond: Why KPV, Larazotide, and VIP Are Peptide Rock Stars

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date August 31, 2026

From Gut Health to Inflammation and Beyond: Why KPV, Larazotide, and VIP Are Peptide Rock Stars

Peptide therapy is often discussed as if every peptide does roughly the same thing. In reality, peptides can act very differently depending on the signals they carry and the cells that receive them. KPV, Larazotide, and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) are three great examples. All three have attracted attention for their potential roles in gut health, but that is only part of their story.

KPV is being studied for its ability to help regulate inflammation and immune activity, with research extending from the gastrointestinal tract to inflammatory skin conditions and tissue recovery. Larazotide takes a different approach by helping regulate the intestinal barrier and the tight junctions between intestinal cells, with some of its most important human research involving celiac disease. VIP has the broadest reach of the three, participating in communication between the nervous system, immune system, gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels, and lungs.

That is what makes these three peptides so interesting. They aren’t simply three different ways of treating the same problem. Each targets a different part of the body’s response to inflammation, injury, and barrier dysfunction, with potential applications that extend beyond where the research originally began. Let’s look at what makes KPV, Larazotide, and VIP worthy of the “peptide rock star” label while separating what the science supports from what is still being investigated.

KPV: When Inflammation Needs to Calm Down

Inflammation isn’t always bad. It’s one of the ways your body protects itself from injury and infection and starts the healing process. The problem is when inflammation becomes excessive or doesn’t settle down when it should. That’s where KPV gets interesting. This small peptide is being studied for its ability to help calm excessive inflammation without simply shutting down the body’s normal immune response.

The gut has become one of the major areas of KPV research. When the intestinal lining remains inflamed, it can become harder for that tissue to recover and maintain a healthy barrier. KPV appears to reduce some of the inflammatory signals involved in this process, potentially creating a better environment for the intestinal lining to heal and function normally.

But KPV isn’t just a gut peptide. Researchers have also explored its potential in skin inflammation, wound healing, tissue recovery, and antimicrobial activity. Much of this research is still in the laboratory or animal stage, so we don’t yet have the large human studies needed to call these proven benefits. The science is promising, but KPV remains an investigational peptide.

Larazotide: Helping Protect the Gut Barrier

Your intestinal lining has an important job. It needs to let nutrients into your body while helping keep bacteria, toxins, and other unwanted substances where they belong—inside the digestive tract. The cells lining the intestine are connected by structures called tight junctions, which work a little like adjustable gates. They help control what is allowed to pass between those cells and into the body.

Larazotide is being studied for its ability to help those tight junctions stay properly regulated. Much of the human research has focused on celiac disease, where gluten can trigger an immune reaction and disrupt the intestinal lining. Researchers have studied whether Larazotide can help maintain a stronger barrier and reduce some of the symptoms that occur after gluten exposure.

There is also growing interest in the connection between the gut barrier and inflammation elsewhere in the body. When tight junctions aren’t working properly, substances that would normally stay inside the intestine may have greater contact with the immune system, potentially contributing to inflammation. Researchers are still working to understand how important that connection may be. Larazotide remains investigational and is not FDA-approved, but its ability to target the tight junctions that control what crosses the intestinal lining makes this peptide particularly interesting.

VIP: A Peptide That Works Throughout the Body

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) is a naturally occurring peptide your body already makes, especially in the nervous system and digestive tract. Despite its name, VIP does much more than influence the intestines. It acts as a messenger between the nervous system, immune system, and different organs, helping regulate how these systems respond to changes in the body.

One of VIP’s important jobs is helping keep inflammation from becoming excessive while supporting normal immune function. In the gut, it also helps protect the intestinal lining, regulate tight junctions, control intestinal movement and secretion, and maintain blood flow. These combined effects have made VIP an important area of research for intestinal inflammation and conditions involving a disrupted gut barrier.

What really makes VIP stand out is how many other systems it influences. VIP can relax blood vessels and increase blood flow, relax the airways in the lungs, and influence communication within the nervous system. Researchers have studied VIP in pulmonary disease, inflammatory and autoimmune conditions, and neuroinflammation in addition to gastrointestinal disorders. Human research is still limited for many of these uses, and VIP is not FDA-approved for treating gut or inflammatory conditions. However, its ability to influence several interconnected systems makes VIP an intriguing area of ongoing research.

The Bottom Line

The growing interest in KPV, Larazotide, and VIP reflects an important part of peptide therapy: the goal isn’t simply to choose a peptide because it is popular. It is to understand what problem is being addressed and whether a particular peptide makes sense for that goal.

Peptide therapy also doesn’t replace conventional medical care or the need to determine why symptoms are occurring. Persistent abdominal pain, diarrhea, unexplained weight loss, bleeding, or other significant symptoms require appropriate medical evaluation. Celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, infections, medication effects, and other medical conditions need to be identified and treated appropriately.

KPV, Larazotide, and VIP remain investigational for the uses discussed in this article, and the strength of the research varies between them. As peptide research continues to develop, understanding both the potential and limitations of these therapies is just as important as understanding how they work.

Ready to Learn More About Peptide Therapy?

At Axios Health & Wellness, we offer individualized peptide consultations to help patients understand their options and determine whether peptide therapy may be appropriate for their health concerns and goals.

Call us at 720-899-9400 to schedule a consultation or visit AxiosHealthCO.com to learn more about our peptide therapy program.

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

Can KPV, Larazotide, and VIP be used together?

Potentially, but using multiple peptides should be based on the condition being addressed rather than simply combining therapies because they work differently. A clinician should consider the patient’s symptoms, medical history, medications, treatment goals, and available evidence before determining whether one peptide or a combination makes sense.

How are KPV, Larazotide, and VIP taken?

The route depends on the peptide and the reason it is being considered. These peptides may be compounded in different forms, including oral, injectable, or intranasal preparations. The route can matter because peptides are absorbed and processed differently depending on how they are administered.

How long does peptide therapy take to work?

There isn’t one timeline that applies to every peptide or every patient. Response can depend on the peptide being used, the condition being addressed, dose and route, and the individual’s health. Treatment should have a defined goal and a planned time to reassess whether it is actually helping.

Do you need laboratory testing before starting peptide therapy?

That depends on the peptide and the patient’s medical history. Baseline laboratory testing can help identify underlying health concerns, establish a starting point, and determine what should be monitored during treatment. Testing should be individualized rather than using the same laboratory panel for every peptide.

Are compounded peptides the same as FDA-approved medications?

No. A compounded medication is prepared for an individual patient by a compounding pharmacy and does not go through the same FDA approval process as a commercially manufactured FDA-approved drug. This distinction is especially important with investigational peptides, where the quality of the evidence, availability, and regulatory status can vary.

References

Dalmasso G, Charrier-Hisamuddin L, Nguyen HTT, et al. PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation.Gastroenterology.

Leffler DA, Kelly CP, Green PHR, et al. Larazotide acetate for persistent symptoms of celiac disease despite a gluten-free diet: a randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology.

Iwasaki M, Akiba Y, Kaunitz JD. Recent advances in vasoactive intestinal peptide physiology and pathophysiology: focus on the gastrointestinal system

Ganea D, Hooper KM, Kong W. The neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide: direct effects on immune cells and involvement in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Acta Physiologica.

Mental Health or Hormones? Understanding the Overlap in Symptoms

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date August 27, 2026

Mental Health or Hormones? Understanding the Overlap in Symptoms

Mental health and hormone dysfunction can cause surprisingly similar symptoms. Anxiety, depression, irritability, fatigue, poor sleep, brain fog, and difficulty concentrating can occur with mental health conditions, hormonal changes, or sometimes both at the same time.

With a clinical background as a psychiatric nurse practitioner and my current work in hormone management at Axios Health & Wellness in Longmont, Colorado, I have seen how similar mental health and hormone-related symptoms can appear. Patients often know that something has changed in how they feel, but identifying what may be contributing to those changes is not always straightforward.

Why Mental Health and Hormone Dysfunction Can Cause Similar Symptoms

Hormones influence much more than reproductive health. Estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, and thyroid hormones interact with systems involved in energy, sleep, cognition, sexual function, and emotional regulation.

This is one reason hormonal changes can sometimes resemble symptoms associated with depression, anxiety, or other mental health conditions.

Common overlapping symptoms include:

Anxiety or increased worry
Depressed or low mood
Irritability
Mood changes
Fatigue or low motivation
Difficulty concentrating
Brain fog
Sleep disturbances
Changes in appetite or weight
Decreased libido
Reduced interest in activities

The presence of these symptoms does not automatically mean someone has a hormonal imbalance. Likewise, having abnormal hormone levels does not exclude a mental health condition.

That distinction matters.

Perimenopause Can Affect More Than Your Period

Perimenopause is one of the clearest examples of the connection between hormonal changes and mental health.

During the menopause transition, estrogen and progesterone levels fluctuate before eventually declining. While many women expect changes in their menstrual cycle or hot flashes, they may be less prepared for changes in mood, sleep, concentration, and anxiety.

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) notes that approximately 4 in 10 women experience mood symptoms during perimenopause that can include irritability, low energy, tearfulness, mood changes, and difficulty concentrating. Research also indicates that the risk of depression increases during the menopause transition.

For some women, these symptoms feel very different from their previous baseline.

A patient may tell me, “I’ve never been an anxious person, but suddenly everything makes me anxious,” or describe feeling overwhelmed by situations she previously managed without difficulty.

That change deserves evaluation rather than an assumption that it is “just stress” or “just hormones.

Thyroid Dysfunction Can Also Mimic Mental Health Symptoms

Thyroid function is another important consideration when evaluating changes in mood, energy, and cognition.

Hypothyroidism can be associated with fatigue, depressed mood, difficulty concentrating, sleep changes, and cognitive complaints. Hyperthyroidism may contribute to symptoms such as anxiety, restlessness, irritability, and difficulty sleeping.

The overlap can make determining the source of symptoms difficult based on symptoms alone.

Importantly, not every person experiencing depression or anxiety has thyroid dysfunction, and treating a thyroid abnormality does not necessarily resolve an underlying mental health disorder.

This is why appropriate laboratory testing and a complete clinical history can be valuable when symptoms suggest more than one possible cause.

Low Testosterone and Mental Health Symptoms in Men

Hormonal symptoms are not limited to women.

Men with testosterone deficiency may experience reduced energy, difficulty concentrating, irritability, depressed mood, decreased libido, and changes in physical performance.

These symptoms are also nonspecific. Fatigue and low motivation, for example, can occur with depression, chronic stress, inadequate sleep, sleep apnea, medication effects, thyroid disorders, and many other medical conditions.

Low testosterone should therefore not be diagnosed from symptoms alone. Current Endocrine Society guidance recommends diagnosing hypogonadism when compatible symptoms are accompanied by consistently and unequivocally low testosterone levels on appropriate laboratory testing.

Sometimes It Really Is Both

One of the most important concepts I discuss with patients is that identifying a hormonal contributor does not invalidate a mental health diagnosis—and having a mental health condition does not mean physical contributors should be ignored.

A woman with a history of anxiety may notice significantly increased symptoms during perimenopause. Someone with depression may also develop hypothyroidism. A man experiencing low energy and motivation may have low testosterone while simultaneously dealing with significant stress or depression.

Human physiology rarely fits neatly into one category.

The goal should not be to prove that symptoms are either psychological or hormonal. The goal is to understand all of the factors contributing to how someone feels.

A More Complete Evaluation

When patients come to our clinic with overlapping symptoms, I believe the most useful question is not simply, “Are your hormones normal?”

Instead, we look at the larger clinical picture.

That may include when symptoms began, whether they fluctuate with the menstrual cycle, changes in sleep, menstrual history, medications, previous mental health diagnoses, sexual symptoms, energy levels, physical symptoms, lifestyle factors, and appropriate laboratory testing.

Laboratory results are important, but they are only one part of the evaluation. Hormone levels should be interpreted alongside symptoms, medical history, and other possible causes.

Treatment Should Match the Cause

If a hormonal disorder is identified, appropriate treatment may improve some associated symptoms. Menopausal hormone therapy, for example, can be effective for appropriate candidates experiencing bothersome menopausal symptoms. Thyroid disorders and confirmed testosterone deficiency also have established treatment approaches.

But hormone therapy is not a universal treatment for depression, anxiety, or other psychiatric disorders.

Some patients benefit from mental health treatment. Others benefit from addressing hormonal or medical contributors. Many benefit from a combination of approaches that may include medication, psychotherapy, hormone management when appropriate, improved sleep, exercise, nutrition, and stress reduction.

Looking at the Whole Person

If you have recently developed anxiety, irritability, fatigue, brain fog, sleep problems, decreased motivation, or changes in mood, it may be worth looking beyond a single explanation.

At Axios Health & Wellness in Longmont, Colorado, our approach is to evaluate symptoms in context rather than assuming they come from one source. Understanding the potential relationship between mental health and hormone dysfunction can help identify contributing factors and guide a more individualized treatment plan.

Feeling different does not automatically mean you have a psychiatric disorder or a hormonal disorder. Sometimes the most important first step is simply asking the right questions.

Wondering whether hormones may be contributing to changes in your mood, energy, sleep, or concentration? Axios Health & Wellness provides individualized hormone evaluations in Longmont, Colorado. A comprehensive evaluation can help identify potential hormonal and medical contributors and determine appropriate next steps.

Schedule a Consultation

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

Can hormone problems cause anxiety or depression?

Hormonal changes can contribute to symptoms such as anxiety, low mood, irritability, fatigue, and sleep disturbances. This can occur during perimenopause and menopause and with conditions such as thyroid dysfunction or testosterone deficiency. However, these symptoms can also occur with mental health disorders and other medical conditions, so symptoms alone cannot determine the cause.

How can I tell if my symptoms are from hormones or a mental health condition?

There is often no single symptom that clearly distinguishes the two. Your provider may consider when symptoms began, menstrual or reproductive changes, sleep, medications, previous mental health history, physical symptoms, sexual health, and appropriate laboratory testing. In some cases, both hormonal and mental health factors contribute to symptoms.

Can perimenopause cause anxiety even if I have never had anxiety before?

Yes. Some women experience new or worsening anxiety, irritability, mood changes, sleep disturbances, and difficulty concentrating during the menopause transition. New symptoms should still be evaluated because perimenopause is only one of several possible causes.

What hormones should be checked if I have fatigue, anxiety, depression, or brain fog?

Testing should be individualized rather than using the same hormone panel for everyone. Depending on your symptoms, age, sex, menstrual history, medications, and medical history, evaluation may include thyroid testing or assessment of reproductive hormones when clinically appropriate. Laboratory results should always be interpreted together with symptoms and medical history.

Will hormone therapy improve my mental health symptoms?

It depends on what is causing the symptoms. Treating an identified hormonal condition may improve symptoms associated with that condition, but hormone therapy is not a universal treatment for anxiety, depression, or other psychiatric disorders. Some people benefit from hormone management, some need mental health treatment, and others may benefit from both.

References

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Mood Changes During Perimenopause Are Real. Here’s What to Know.

Maki PM, Kornstein SG, Joffe H, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and treatment of perimenopausal depression: summary and recommendations. Journal of Women’s Health. 2019;28(2):117–134.

American Thyroid Association. The association between TSH and depression may not be what you expect. Clinical Thyroidology for the Public. July 2021.

Bhasin S, Brito JP, Cunningham GR, et al. Testosterone therapy in men with hypogonadism: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2018;103(5):1715–1744.

When the Body Struggles to Heal: How Peptides May Support Recovery

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date August 26, 2026

When the Body Struggles to Heal: How Peptides May Support Recovery

Healing is something most of us take for granted—until it doesn’t happen the way we expect. A strained muscle may feel better within a few weeks, while a tendon injury can linger for months. Nerve pain may continue long after an injury, and problems involving a chronic wound or the lining of the gut can be even more difficult because inflammation and the immune system may also be involved.

The reason is that healing is not one single process. Injured tissue needs good blood flow. Repair cells have to reach the damaged area and begin rebuilding it. Inflammation needs to be controlled without interfering with normal healing. Damaged nerves may need additional support to recover. And when the skin or gut lining is damaged, the body may also need to protect the area from harmful microorganisms while repairing the tissue.

This is why the term healing peptides can be a little misleading. BPC-157, TB-500, ARA-290, and LL-37 may all be discussed for healing and recovery, but they do not work in the same way. BPC-157 and TB-500 are more closely associated with tissue repair and remodeling. ARA-290 brings nerve recovery and control of inflammation into the picture. LL-37 adds another layer by helping the body defend against microorganisms while supporting the immune response and repair of damaged barriers. Understanding these differences changes the question from “Which healing peptide is best?” to “What is interfering with healing, and which part of the recovery process are we trying to support?”

BPC-157: Supporting Tissue and Gut Repair

BPC-157 is one of the better-known peptides associated with healing and recovery, particularly for tendons, ligaments, muscles, and the gastrointestinal tract. To understand why, it helps to think about what actually has to happen after tissue is injured.

Imagine a damaged construction site. Before rebuilding can really begin, you need roads to bring in supplies, workers who can reach the damaged area, and a way for those workers to organize the new structure. Healing tissue faces many of the same challenges. It needs blood flow to deliver oxygen and nutrients, repair cells have to move into the injured area, and fibroblasts have to begin producing and organizing collagen.

BPC-157 appears to influence several parts of this process. It affects signaling involved in angiogenesis, or the development and repair of blood vessels, helping establish the “roads” that supply recovering tissue. It also influences fibroblast migration, helping these important repair cells move into the injured area. Once there, fibroblasts help produce and organize the collagen that gives tendons, ligaments, and other connective tissues their structure. BPC-157 also appears to influence inflammatory and nitric-oxide signaling, which can affect blood flow and the overall environment in which healing takes place.

This same repair biology helps explain the interest in BPC-157 for the gut. The intestinal lining is constantly being exposed to food, digestive chemicals, microorganisms, and inflammation. When that protective lining becomes injured, cells have to migrate, restore the barrier, and rebuild the damaged tissue. BPC-157 has demonstrated protective and healing effects in several areas of the gastrointestinal tract in experimental research.

So rather than thinking of BPC-157 as something that simply “makes an injury heal,” think of it as potentially helping organize the environment the body needs to repair damaged tissue—improving access to the injury, helping repair cells get where they need to go, and supporting the rebuilding process once they arrive.

TB-500: Helping Repair Cells Get Where They Need to Go

If BPC-157 helps create a better environment for healing, TB-500 brings another important part of the repair process into the picture: getting repair cells where they need to go. TB-500 is related to thymosin beta-4, a naturally occurring peptide involved in tissue repair and regeneration.

Think about the same construction site. Having roads and supplies available does not help much if the workers cannot actually reach the damaged area. Healing tissue has a similar challenge. Cells involved in repair need to move into the injury, organize themselves, and begin rebuilding the damaged tissue.

One way thymosin beta-4 helps with this process involves a protein inside our cells called actin. Actin acts like a flexible internal framework. Cells can rearrange this framework to change their shape and move through tissue. Thymosin beta-4 helps regulate actin, which is one reason it has such an important connection to cell movement during healing.

But movement is only part of the process. Thymosin beta-4 has also been studied for its effects on new blood-vessel formation, inflammation, cell survival, and tissue remodeling. Together, these actions may help repair cells reach an injury and create the conditions needed to rebuild and reorganize damaged tissue.

This is why BPC-157 and TB-500 are often discussed together, but they should not be thought of as doing the same job. Using our construction analogy, BPC-157 helps create and support the repair environment, while TB-500 helps the workers move into position and participate in rebuilding the damaged tissue.

ARA-290: When Healing Involves Nerves

BPC-157 and TB-500 bring us into the repair of damaged tissue, but nerve injuries create a different problem. A tendon or muscle needs to rebuild its structure. An injured nerve also has to restore its ability to communicate normally.

Think of a nerve like an electrical wire carrying information between the body and the brain. When that wire becomes damaged or irritated, the signal can become distorted. Instead of normal sensation, the nerve may begin producing pain, burning, tingling, or numbness. Inflammation around the nerve can keep those abnormal signals going and make recovery more difficult.

ARA-290 works through a pathway called the Innate Repair Receptor (IRR). When tissue is injured, this receptor helps activate signals that protect injured cells, reduce damaging inflammation, and support repair. Rather than simply blocking a pain signal, ARA-290 is being studied for its ability to improve the environment around an injured nerve and potentially support the recovery process.

What makes ARA-290 particularly interesting is the human research involving small-fiber neuropathy. Studies have reported improvements in nerve-related symptoms such as pain, burning, and tingling, along with measurable changes in small nerve fibers. This suggests ARA-290 may be doing more than changing how an injured nerve feels—it may also be influencing the nerve-repair process itself.

LL-37: When Healing Also Requires Defense

LL-37 brings us to another type of healing. Sometimes the body is not only trying to repair damaged tissue—it also has to protect that tissue from microorganisms while it heals. This is especially important at protective surfaces such as the skin and the lining of the gut.

Think of our construction site again, but this time the damage has created an opening in the security fence. The workers need to rebuild the damaged area while also preventing unwanted visitors from getting through. LL-37 helps the body manage both problems.

LL-37 is a naturally occurring host-defense peptide. It can interact directly with certain microorganisms and interfere with biofilms, the protective communities that bacteria and other microorganisms can build around themselves. At the same time, LL-37 helps coordinate the immune response and influences the epithelial cells responsible for rebuilding damaged protective barriers.

This is what makes LL-37 so different. The body isn’t just trying to rebuild damaged tissue—it may be trying to defend that tissue at the same time. LL-37 connects microbial defense, immune regulation, and tissue repair, making it particularly interesting when these processes overlap, such as with chronic wounds or damage to the gut lining.

Why the Type of Injury Matters

Looking at these four peptides together makes one thing clear: healing peptides are not interchangeable.

BPC-157 may help create an environment that supports tissue repair by influencing blood vessels, repair cells, and connective tissue. TB-500 adds another piece by helping cells move into the injured area and participate in remodeling. ARA-290 shifts the focus toward injured nerves and the inflammation surrounding them. LL-37 becomes more relevant when healing also involves microorganisms, immune activity, and a damaged protective barrier.

This is why choosing a peptide should start with understanding what tissue is injured and what may be preventing it from recovering. A chronic tendon injury is different from small-fiber neuropathy, and both are very different from a wound that is struggling to close.

Sometimes more than one part of the healing process needs support. This is one reason clinicians may occasionally combine peptides such as BPC-157 and TB-500 when their actions may complement one another. But adding more peptides does not automatically mean better healing. The goal is to match the treatment to the biology of the injury.

The Bottom Line

That is why I believe peptide therapy should start with a different question: What is keeping this tissue from healing? Once we understand the injury and what may be slowing recovery, we can determine whether a peptide fits the problem and which one makes the most sense.

If you have an injury that is taking longer than expected to heal, ongoing nerve-related symptoms, or another condition where recovery has stalled, the first step is understanding why the body is struggling to recover.

At Axios Health & Wellness, we look at the type of tissue involved, what may be interfering with healing, and whether peptide therapy makes sense as part of the overall treatment plan. The goal is not simply to prescribe a “healing peptide,” but to choose a treatment that matches what your body is actually trying to repair.

Schedule a consultation with Axios Health & Wellness to learn whether peptide therapy may be appropriate for your recovery.

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently asked questions

What are healing peptides?

Healing peptides are short chains of amino acids that may influence different processes the body uses during recovery. Depending on the peptide, these may include blood-vessel formation, movement of repair cells, inflammation, nerve recovery, immune regulation, and tissue remodeling. Because each peptide works differently, the best choice depends on the type of tissue involved and what may be interfering with healing.

What is the difference between BPC-157 and TB-500?

BPC-157 and TB-500 may support different parts of tissue repair. BPC-157 appears to help create an environment that supports healing, including blood flow and the activity of repair cells. TB-500 is related to thymosin beta-4 and is more closely associated with cell movement and tissue remodeling. This is why clinicians sometimes consider the two peptides together for musculoskeletal injuries.

Which peptide may be considered when nerve pain is part of the problem?

ARA-290 has been studied for its potential role in nerve protection and recovery, particularly in small-fiber neuropathy. It works through the Innate Repair Receptor (IRR), which helps protect injured cells and control inflammation. Human studies have reported improvements in nerve-related symptoms such as pain, burning, and tingling, along with measurable changes in small nerve fibers.

What makes LL-37 different from other healing peptides?

LL-37 is a naturally occurring host-defense peptide.

In addition to supporting tissue and barrier repair, LL-37 can interact with microorganisms and interfere with biofilms. It may also help regulate the immune response. This makes LL-37 particularly interesting when healing, immune activity, and microbial exposure occur together. This can happen with chronic wounds or damage to protective barriers.

Can healing peptides be used together?

Sometimes. BPC-157 and TB-500 may work well together because each influences a different part of the repair process. However, using more peptides does not automatically mean better healing. The goal is to identify the injured tissue, understand what may be limiting recovery, and choose the peptide or combination that best fits the problem.

References

Chang CH, Tsai WC, Lin MS, Hsu YH, Pang JH. The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival, and cell migration. Journal of Applied Physiology

Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Sosne G, Kleinman HK. Thymosin β4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Basic properties and clinical applications. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. 2012

Dahan A, et al. ARA 290 improves symptoms in patients with sarcoidosis-associated small nerve fiber loss and increases corneal nerve fiber density. Molecular Medicine. 2013

Grönberg A, Mahlapuu M, Ståhle M, Whately-Smith C, Rollman O. Treatment with LL-37 is safe and effective in enhancing healing of hard-to-heal venous leg ulcers: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Wound Repair and Regeneration. 2014

Women’s BHRT in Longmont: A Personalized Approach to Hormone Replacement Therapy

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date August 24, 2026

Women’s Hormone Replacement Therapy in Longmont: A Personalized Approach

One of the biggest misconceptions we hear about menopause is that it begins when your periods stop.

It doesn’t.

For many women, hormonal changes begin years before their final menstrual period. Sleep changes. Energy declines. Weight starts accumulating differently. Anxiety or irritability may appear unexpectedly. Sex drive changes. Brain fog becomes frustrating. Hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and changes in menstrual cycles may seem to appear out of nowhere.

In our Longmont clinic, we frequently meet women who initially come in for one concern—poor sleep, low libido, weight changes, fatigue, or increasing anxiety—only to realize that several of these changes started around the same time.

Too often, they have been told this is simply part of getting older.

At Axios Health & Wellness in Longmont, Colorado, we believe women deserve a more complete answer. Our approach to women’s hormone replacement therapy starts by understanding what has changed, what may be causing those changes, and whether hormone therapy is actually the right treatment.

Menopause Is About More Than Hot Flashes

Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone influence far more than reproduction. Hormonal changes during perimenopause and menopause can affect sleep, sexual function, vaginal tissues, bone health, body composition, and overall well-being.

But every woman experiences this transition differently.

One woman may struggle primarily with hot flashes. Another may experience insomnia, vaginal dryness, anxiety, or decreased sexual desire. Others tell us something harder to define:

“I just don’t feel like myself anymore.”

This is why we don’t believe menopause treatment in Longmont should begin with a predetermined hormone protocol.

It should begin with the woman sitting in front of us.

Perimenopause Can Begin Years Before Menopause

Menopause occurs after 12 consecutive months without a menstrual period, assuming another medical condition is not responsible. Perimenopause is the transition leading up to menopause, and it can last for several years.

During this time, hormone levels can fluctuate considerably. Estrogen, for example, does not simply decline in a predictable straight line.

This is why a single hormone test may not tell the entire story.

Laboratory testing can provide useful information, but we interpret those results alongside symptoms, menstrual patterns, medications, medical history, age, and other clinical factors.

At Axios, we do not treat a laboratory number.

We treat the patient.

For women seeking perimenopause treatment in Longmont, our goal is to understand which symptoms may be related to hormonal changes while making sure we are not overlooking something else.

What Is Women’s Hormone Replacement Therapy?

Women’s hormone replacement therapy is used to replace or supplement hormones that decline or fluctuate during perimenopause and menopause.

Treatment may involve estrogen, progesterone, and, for appropriately selected women, testosterone. Bioidentical hormones, such as estradiol and micronized progesterone, have the same molecular structure as hormones naturally produced by the human body.

Hormones may be commercially manufactured or prepared by a compounding pharmacy. At Axios Health & Wellness, we frequently use compounded hormone therapy because it allows us to individualize certain formulations, strengths, combinations, and delivery methods based on a patient’s clinical needs.

Compounded medications are not FDA-approved in the same manner as commercially manufactured medications, and we believe patients should understand that distinction.

When we use compounded hormones, they are prescribed based on the individual patient and obtained through reputable compounding pharmacies. Follow-up and ongoing monitoring are important parts of treatment.

Our goal is not to prescribe something simply because it is called “natural” or “bioidentical.”

Our goal is to determine which treatment makes sense for you.

Estrogen and Progesterone: Why the Details Matter

Estrogen is one of the primary hormones affected during menopause. Declining estrogen can contribute to hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, painful intercourse, and bone loss. Systemic estrogen—meaning estrogen that circulates throughout the body—remains the most effective treatment for menopausal hot flashes and night sweats.

But prescribing estrogen involves more than deciding whether someone needs it.

The type of estrogen, dose, delivery method, symptoms, medical history, and individual risk factors all matter.

Progesterone matters too.

For women who still have a uterus and use systemic estrogen, adequate progesterone is generally necessary to help protect the uterine lining.

This is why the better question is not simply:

“Do I need hormones?”

It is:

“Which hormones, at what dose, and in what form are appropriate for me?”

What About Testosterone for Women?

Women produce testosterone too.

Testosterone has received tremendous attention online for libido, energy, muscle, body composition, and overall well-being. This is one area where we believe it is especially important to separate good medicine from internet hype.

That does not mean every woman with fatigue or low libido needs testosterone.

One thing we have learned from treating women with hormone concerns is that symptoms frequently overlap. Low libido, fatigue, poor sleep, brain fog, and weight changes can occur during perimenopause and menopause, but that does not automatically mean one hormone is the answer.

Sexual health, energy, and overall well-being can be influenced by estrogen and progesterone changes, thyroid function, sleep, stress, medications, metabolic health, mental health, relationship factors, and other medical conditions.

Good hormone care requires asking why a symptom is occurring, looking at the entire clinical picture, and then determining whether testosterone or another treatment may be appropriate.

What We Know About Hormone Therapy Has Changed

Much of the fear surrounding hormone replacement therapy began after early findings from the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) were released in 2002.

Those findings dramatically changed menopause care.

Over the following two decades, continued research created a much more nuanced understanding of hormone therapy. Today, clinicians consider factors such as a woman’s age, timing relative to menopause, medical history, hormone formulation, route of administration, and individual risk factors.

In February 2026, the FDA approved significant labeling changes for certain menopausal hormone therapy products, including removal of cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, and probable dementia statements from the boxed warning for the first group of affected products.

This does not mean hormone therapy is risk-free or appropriate for every woman.

It means women deserve a conversation based on current evidence rather than fear or outdated assumptions.

Sometimes the Problem Isn’t Just Hormones

This is one of the most important parts of the evaluation.

Not every symptom after forty is caused by menopause.

Fatigue, brain fog, weight changes, poor sleep, hair changes, low libido, and mood symptoms may overlap with thyroid dysfunction, insulin resistance, nutritional deficiencies, medication effects, sleep problems, and other medical conditions.

We often meet women who assume they simply need more estrogen or testosterone. Sometimes hormones are part of the answer. Sometimes another problem needs attention too.

Frequently, it is a combination of factors.

That is why our approach to women’s hormone replacement therapy in Longmont looks beyond a hormone panel and considers the bigger picture.

What Personalized Women’s Hormone Replacement Therapy Should Look Like

Hormone optimization should never mean pushing hormone levels as high as possible.

More hormone is not necessarily better.

A thoughtful women’s hormone replacement therapy plan begins with understanding your symptoms, medical and family history, medications, relevant laboratory findings, risk factors, and what you hope to accomplish with treatment.

Then we monitor.

We want to know what improved, what didn’t, whether you experienced side effects, and whether the treatment still makes sense as your health and symptoms change.

For us, that ongoing relationship is just as important as the initial prescription.

The Bottom Line

Perimenopause and menopause affect far more than menstrual cycles, and women should not have to choose between being told that everything they are experiencing is “just aging” and receiving a one-size-fits-all hormone protocol.

There is a better middle ground.

At Axios Health & Wellness, we provide personalized women’s hormone replacement therapy and menopause treatment in Longmont by considering symptoms, medical history, laboratory findings when appropriate, thyroid and metabolic health, sexual health, sleep, lifestyle, and individual treatment goals.

Hormone replacement therapy is not right for every woman.

But every woman deserves to understand her options.

Looking for Women’s Hormone Replacement Therapy or Menopause Treatment in Longmont?

If you are experiencing hot flashes, night sweats, poor sleep, low libido, vaginal dryness, brain fog, changes in body composition, or simply do not feel like yourself, we are here to help.

At Axios Health & Wellness in Longmont, Colorado, we provide personalized evaluation and women’s hormone replacement therapy for patients navigating perimenopause and menopause.

Our goal is not simply to prescribe hormones. It is to help you understand what may be contributing to your symptoms and determine which treatment options make sense for you.

Schedule your consultation today to learn whether personalized women’s hormone replacement therapy may be appropriate for you.

Axios Health & Wellness
700 Ken Pratt Blvd., Suite 108
Longmont, CO 80501
(720) 899-9400
axioshealthco.com

Written By

This article was written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC, board-certified Family Nurse Practitioners and hormone optimization specialists at Axios Health & Wellness.

Together, they bring decades of clinical experience in hormone replacement therapy, thyroid optimization, peptide therapy, medical weight loss, and regenerative medicine. Their approach emphasizes individualized evaluation, evidence-based treatment, patient education, and ongoing monitoring.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

What is women’s hormone replacement therapy?

Women’s hormone replacement therapy uses hormones such as estrogen and progesterone to address hormonal changes that occur during perimenopause and menopause. Testosterone may also be considered for some women based on symptoms, medical history, laboratory findings, and individual treatment goals.

What symptoms may improve with hormone replacement therapy?

Hormone replacement therapy may help with symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats, sleep disruption, vaginal dryness, painful intercourse, and other symptoms associated with hormonal changes. Because fatigue, low libido, brain fog, mood changes, and weight changes can have multiple causes, we evaluate the whole clinical picture rather than assuming every symptom is hormone-related.

Do I need hormone testing before starting treatment?

Yes. At Axios Health & Wellness, every woman receives laboratory testing as part of her evaluation before starting hormone replacement therapy. Hormone levels can fluctuate significantly during perimenopause, so we interpret laboratory results alongside your symptoms, menstrual history, medications, medical history, and other clinical factors. We may also evaluate thyroid function, metabolic health, and other markers when appropriate to help identify additional factors that could be contributing to your symptoms.

Does Axios Health & Wellness prescribe compounded hormones?

Yes. We frequently use compounded hormone therapy when it allows us to individualize certain formulations, strengths, combinations, or delivery methods based on a patient’s clinical needs. When compounded hormones are prescribed, we use reputable compounding pharmacies and include appropriate follow-up and ongoing monitoring as part of treatment.

How do I know if women’s hormone replacement therapy is right for me?

There is no one-size-fits-all answer. We consider your symptoms, stage of perimenopause or menopause, medical and family history, medications, relevant laboratory findings, risk factors, and treatment goals. The purpose of the evaluation is not simply to prescribe hormones—it is to determine what may be contributing to your symptoms and whether hormone replacement therapy is an appropriate option for you.

References

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Hormone Therapy for Menopause.
Covers perimenopause, menopause symptoms, hormone replacement therapy, estrogen, progesterone, benefits, and risks.

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Compounded Bioidentical Menopausal Hormone Therapy. Clinical Consensus No. 6. Obstetrics & Gynecology.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves Labeling Changes to Menopausal Hormone Therapy Products. February 12, 2026.

Manson JE, Aragaki AK, Rossouw JE, et al. Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Long-term All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality: The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trials.

Lost That Spark? Reigniting Desire: The Science Behind Peptide PT-141

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date August 20, 2026

Lost That Spark? Reigniting Desire: The Science Behind Peptide PT-141

Sexual desire can change for a lot of reasons. Hormones, stress, relationships, medications, sleep, and overall health can all play a role. But sometimes we correct the obvious problems, optimize hormones, and a patient still tells me, “I just don’t have the desire I used to have.” That is when we have to look beyond hormone levels and recognize that sexual desire is more complicated than a lab result.

PT-141, also known as bremelanotide, is a peptide that takes a very different approach to sexual health. Instead of simply raising hormone levels or focusing on blood flow, PT-141 works through the brain, where sexual interest and arousal actually begin. That makes it especially interesting for people who feel physically capable of having sex but have lost some of the desire, excitement, or responsiveness they once had.

PT-141 isn’t meant to replace good hormone management or fix every cause of low libido. Instead, it gives us another way to approach sexual health when the problem isn’t just physical. For the right patient, targeting the desire and arousal side of the sexual response may be the missing piece.

What Is PT-141 and How Does It Work?

PT-141 is a peptide, also known as bremelanotide, that has a pretty interesting history. It wasn’t originally developed to improve sexual desire. It came from research on another peptide called Melanotan II, which was being studied for its effects on skin pigmentation. During those studies, researchers noticed an unexpected effect—increased sexual interest and arousal.

That discovery led researchers to focus specifically on the peptide’s effects on sexual response, eventually leading to PT-141. Unlike many treatments used for sexual health, PT-141 doesn’t work primarily by changing hormone levels or increasing blood flow. It works through the brain and the signaling involved in sexual desire and arousal.

More specifically, PT-141 activates a group of receptors called melanocortin receptors, particularly the MC4 receptor. We don’t need to get overly technical about the receptor itself, but it is important to understand what happens when it is activated. This system helps regulate sexual motivation, interest, and the way the brain responds to sexual cues.

One way I like to explain sexual desire is to think of the brain as having an accelerator and a brake. Certain signals help move us toward sexual interest and arousal, while others can slow that response down. Dopamine is one of the important signals associated with sexual motivation and reward. PT-141 appears to help shift that balance toward the signals that support sexual interest and arousal.

That doesn’t mean PT-141 simply creates sexual desire on command. Attraction, touch, emotional connection, stimulation, and the situation itself still matter. Instead, PT-141 may help the brain become more responsive to those sexual cues, allowing desire and arousal to build more easily when the opportunity is already there.

This is what makes PT-141 different from simply trying to raise testosterone or estrogen. Hormones are incredibly important to sexual health, and we always want to address them when they are part of the problem. But sexual desire doesn’t come from a hormone level alone. Those hormonal and sexual signals still have to be interpreted by the brain and turned into desire, excitement, and arousal. PT-141 gives us a way to target that part of the sexual response.

PT-141 for Women: When the Desire Just Isn’t There

For many women, low libido isn’t about whether they can have sex. The problem is that the desire, excitement, or interest just isn’t there anymore. This can be especially frustrating when hormones and other health concerns have been addressed, but that spark still hasn’t returned.

Women are where we have the strongest clinical research on PT-141. Bremelanotide has been studied in women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD), where persistent low sexual desire causes personal distress. Clinical trials in certain premenopausal women with HSDD found improvements in sexual desire and reductions in the distress associated with low libido.

PT-141 isn’t expected to suddenly create an overwhelming sex drive. A better way to think about it is helping turn the desire and arousal response back up. For the woman who tells me, “I wish I felt more interested in sex, but that desire just isn’t there,” PT-141 may help make it easier for that interest and excitement to return when sexual cues are present. It can help bridge that gap between being open to intimacy and actually feeling the desire to engage in it.

PT-141 for Men: Desire and Erections Aren’t the Same Thing

For men, sexual desire and the ability to get an erection are connected, but they aren’t the same thing. A man can have normal testosterone levels and be physically capable of getting an erection but still feel like his sexual drive isn’t what it used to be. On the other hand, he may have plenty of desire but struggle with the physical erection itself.

This is where PT-141 is different from medications such as Viagra or Cialis. Those medications primarily improve blood flow to help produce and maintain an erection. PT-141 works through the brain pathways involved in sexual desire and arousal. So while a PDE5 inhibitor focuses more on the physical erection, PT-141 may be useful when sexual interest and arousal are part of the problem.

Research in men is not as extensive as it is in women, but studies have shown that PT-141 can increase sexual arousal and erectile response. For some men, the two approaches may even complement each other because they are working on different parts of sexual function—one helping the brain become sexually engaged and the other helping the body respond physically.

What Does Using PT-141 Actually Feel Like?

PT-141 is typically used as needed rather than every day, which makes it different from many other peptide therapies. It is given as a small subcutaneous injection before anticipated sexual activity. The response isn’t necessarily immediate, so timing matters. Some people begin noticing effects within 30 minutes to a few hours, and the response may last well beyond the initial dose.

What someone feels can also vary. It isn’t necessarily a sudden or uncontrollable urge to have sex. Patients may notice that they are thinking about sex more, becoming interested more easily, or responding more strongly to sexual touch and stimulation. The goal is to enhance the natural sexual response rather than make it feel forced.

The most common side effect is nausea, particularly when first starting PT-141. Flushing, headache, and temporary increases in blood pressure can also occur. Because people can respond very differently, I prefer starting conservatively and finding the lowest amount that provides benefit without creating unnecessary side effects.

The Bottom Line: Sexual Desire Is More Than Hormones

Sexual health is rarely about one hormone, one lab value, or one physical response. For some people, hormones are the missing piece. For others, everything may look good on paper, but the desire and excitement they once felt still haven’t returned. PT-141 gives us another way to approach that part of sexual health by focusing on the brain’s role in desire and arousal.

At Axios Health & Wellness, we don’t look at PT-141 as a stand-alone answer for every person with low libido. We look at the whole picture—hormones, medications, overall health, sexual function, and what has actually changed for that individual. When the desire and arousal response appears to be part of the problem, PT-141 may be one option worth considering.

Ready to Get Your Spark Back?

If your sexual desire isn’t what it used to be, you don’t have to assume it’s simply something you have to accept. Schedule a consultation with Axios Health & Wellness to talk about what’s changed, what may be contributing to it, and whether peptide PT-141 may be appropriate for you.

You can contact us at (720) 899-9400, visit us at 700 Ken Pratt Blvd., Suite 108, Longmont, CO 80501, or learn more at AxiosHealthCO.com.

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

How quickly does PT-141 work?

PT-141 doesn’t work at exactly the same speed for everyone. Some people may begin noticing an effect within 30 minutes to a few hours, which is why timing the dose before anticipated sexual activity is important.

Does PT-141 increase testosterone or estrogen?

No. PT-141 does not work by increasing testosterone or estrogen. It works through signaling in the brain involved in sexual desire and arousal, which is one of the reasons it may be considered even when hormone levels have already been addressed.

Can both women and men use PT-141?

PT-141 has been studied in both women and men, although the strongest clinical research is in women with low sexual desire. In men, PT-141 may also influence sexual desire and arousal, but it works differently from medications used primarily to improve erectile blood flow.

What are the most common side effects of PT-141?

The most common side effect is nausea, particularly when first using PT-141. Other possible effects include flushing, headache, and temporary increases in blood pressure. Starting conservatively can help determine how an individual responds.

Do you have to take PT-141 every day?

No. Most patients use PT-141 as needed before anticipated sexual activity rather than every day. Your provider can adjust how often you use it and your dose based on your response, side effects, and overall health.

References

Kingsberg SA, Clayton AH, Portman D, et al. Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials. Obstetrics & Gynecology.

Pfaus JG, Sadiq A, Spana C, Clayton AH. The Neurobiology of Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder in Premenopausal Women. CNS Spectrums.

Diamond LE, Earle DC, Rosen RC, Willett MS, Molinoff PB. Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Evaluation of Intranasal PT-141 in Healthy Males and Patients With Erectile Dysfunction. International Journal of Impotence Research.

Diamond LE, Earle DC, Garcia WD, Spana C. Co-administration of PT-141 and Sildenafil in Men With Erectile Dysfunction Results in an Enhanced Erectile Response. Urology.

Beyond Collagen: How GHK-Cu Rebuilds Aging Skin

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date August 13, 2026

Beyond Collagen: How GHK-Cu Rebuilds Aging Skin

There are hundreds of products promising younger-looking skin, and now peptides have become one of the biggest trends in skin rejuvenation. Some are worth paying attention to, and others have a lot more marketing behind them than science.

One peptide I think is particularly interesting is GHK-Cu, commonly called a copper peptide. What makes GHK-Cu different is how it works. Instead of simply moisturizing the skin or temporarily improving how it looks, GHK-Cu works with some of the natural repair processes your skin already uses. It has been studied for its ability to support collagen and elastin production, skin repair, and the remodeling of damaged tissue.

At Axios Health & Wellness, we use GHK-Cu primarily as a topical skin-remolding treatment, either on its own or as part of a skin rejuvenation plan that includes microneedling with platelet-rich plasma (PRP).

What Is GHK-Cu?

GHK-Cu sounds much more complicated than it really is. GHK is a naturally occurring peptide made from just three amino acids. Our bodies already produce it, and one of its interesting properties is its ability to bind to copper. When the two come together, we call it GHK-Cu.

GHK-Cu has been studied for decades for its role in tissue repair and skin health. One of the reasons we’re interested in it is its effect on fibroblasts, the cells in your skin responsible for producing collagen and elastin. Collagen provides strength and structure to the skin, while elastin allows it to stretch and bounce back.

As we age, we make less of both, and the collagen we already have becomes more damaged and disorganized. That contributes to the fine lines, wrinkles, thinner skin, and loss of firmness we associate with aging. GHK-Cu appears to help support the cells involved in rebuilding that structure.

GHK-Cu Does More Than Make Collagen

This is one of the reasons I like GHK-Cu. When we talk about skin rejuvenation, everyone wants to talk about making more collagen. But simply making more collagen isn’t the whole story. Your skin also needs to get rid of damaged collagen and replace it with healthier, better-organized tissue.

Think about remodeling a house. Before you rebuild an old damaged wall, you first remove the damaged material. Then you replace it and strengthen the new structure. Your skin does something similar.

GHK-Cu appears to support both sides of that process. It helps signal the cells responsible for making new collagen and elastin while also supporting the natural processes involved in clearing and remodeling damaged tissue. That is why I think skin remodeling is a better way to describe GHK-Cu than simply calling it a “collagen peptide.”

How We Use GHK-Cu at Axios:

Topical GHK-Cu Serum

One of the simplest ways we use GHK-Cu is as a topical serum applied directly to the area we’re trying to treat. Our typical protocol is daily topical use for approximately 8–12 weeks. This isn’t something I expect someone to use for three or four days and suddenly wake up with different skin. Collagen production and skin remodeling take time.

The goal is to consistently expose the skin to GHK-Cu while those remodeling processes are taking place. For patients mainly interested in improving the appearance and quality of aging skin, topical GHK-Cu can be used as a stand-alone treatment without having to undergo a procedure.

GHK-Cu After Microneedling with PRP

This is where I think GHK-Cu gets even more interesting. With microneedling with platelet-rich plasma (PRP), also known as the Vampire Facial, we intentionally create thousands of controlled micro-injuries in the skin. We then use platelet-rich plasma from your own blood as part of the treatment. Those tiny injuries essentially tell your skin, it’s time to repair and rebuild. That repair response activates the cells responsible for producing new collagen and rebuilding the skin.

We allow the skin to heal after the procedure before starting GHK-Cu. Once that initial healing has occurred, we begin applying topical GHK-Cu during the longer remodeling period. I think about the combination very simply: microneedling with PRP starts the repair process. GHK-Cu helps support the remodeling that follows.

We can use this same approach when treating scars with microneedling with PRP, also known as Vampire Scar Revision. Scar tissue can contain thick and poorly organized collagen, so our goal is not simply to make more collagen but to help remodel the existing tissue. Research suggests GHK-Cu can support new collagen production while also influencing the processes involved in breaking down and reorganizing damaged collagen. After the skin heals from scar revision with microneedling, topical GHK-Cu can be used during the weeks that follow to support continued remodeling.

What Is the GLOW Peptide Stack?

If you’ve spent time looking into peptides for skin rejuvenation, you’ve probably come across the GLOW Stack. The traditional GLOW Stack combines GHK-Cu, BPC-157, and TB-500, typically as an injectable protocol. GHK-Cu is included for its potential effects on skin and collagen remodeling, while BPC-157 and TB-500 are generally used for their potential roles in healing and tissue repair.

The idea behind combining them makes sense, but I don’t necessarily agree that all three peptides need to be injected. This is especially true for GHK-Cu. When our goal is skin rejuvenation, there is more direct human research looking at GHK-Cu applied topically to the skin than there is for injectable GHK-Cu.

At Axios Health & Wellness, we take the same basic idea behind the GLOW Stack but use the peptides differently. Our protocol uses injectable BPC-157 and TB-500 along with topical GHK-Cu. BPC-157 and TB-500 remain the injectable part of the protocol for their potential roles in healing and tissue repair, while GHK-Cu is applied directly to the skin we’re trying to remodel.

I think this is an important distinction with peptide therapy. Injectable doesn’t automatically mean better. We want to use each peptide in a way that makes sense for what we’re trying to accomplish. For GHK-Cu and skin rejuvenation, research supports topical application as a way to deliver GHK-Cu directly to the skin, which is exactly where we want it working to support healing and remodeling.

A Different Way to Think About Skin Rejuvenation

What I find most interesting about GHK-Cu is that we’re not just trying to temporarily improve how the skin looks. We’re trying to support the natural processes involved in repairing and remodeling the skin itself.

Whether we use topical GHK-Cu on its own, following microneedling with PRP for the Vampire Facial or Vampire Scar Revision, or within our modified GLOW protocol, the goal is the same: support healthier collagen, improve the remodeling of damaged tissue, and give the skin time to rebuild.

GHK-Cu isn’t going to replace good skincare, sun protection, nutrition, or other treatments that affect how our skin ages. But for patients looking for another way to support skin health and rejuvenation, I think it is one of the more interesting peptides available.

Interested in GHK-Cu or Skin Rejuvenation?

At Axios Health & Wellness, we don’t believe every patient needs the same skin treatment or peptide protocol. We look at what you’re trying to improve and then talk through which options make sense for you.

If you’re interested in topical GHK-Cu, microneedling with PRP for the Vampire Facial or Vampire Scar Revision, or our GLOW protocol, contact Axios Health & Wellness to schedule a consultation. We’ll help you understand your options and develop a treatment plan based on your skin and your goals.

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

What is GHK-Cu?

GHK-Cu is a naturally occurring copper-binding peptide made from three amino acids. It has been studied for its potential role in tissue repair, collagen and elastin production, and skin remodeling.

What does GHK-Cu do for aging skin?

GHK-Cu appears to support fibroblasts, the cells responsible for producing collagen and elastin. It may also help regulate the processes involved in removing damaged collagen and replacing it with healthier, better-organized tissue.

How long does topical GHK-Cu take to work?

Skin remodeling doesn’t happen overnight. At Axios Health & Wellness, our typical topical GHK-Cu protocol is used daily for approximately 8–12 weeks.

Can GHK-Cu be used after microneedling with PRP?

Yes. This is one of the ways we use GHK-Cu at Axios. We first allow the skin to heal after microneedling with PRP for the Vampire Facial and then introduce topical GHK-Cu during the remodeling period.

Can GHK-Cu be used for scars?

GHK-Cu has properties that make it interesting for scar remodeling, including its effects on collagen production and tissue remodeling. At Axios, we may use topical GHK-Cu after the skin has healed from microneedling with PRP for Vampire Scar Revision. Human research specifically proving GHK-Cu as a stand-alone scar treatment is still limited.

What is the GLOW Stack?

The traditional GLOW Stack generally combines GHK-Cu, BPC-157, and TB-500 as injectable peptides. At Axios, our approach uses topical GHK-Cu with injectable BPC-157 and TB-500, rather than automatically injecting GHK-Cu.

Is topical or injectable GHK-Cu better for skin?

There is more direct human research evaluating topical GHK-Cu for aging skin than injectable GHK-Cu. That is one reason we prefer topical GHK-Cu when our primary goal is skin rejuvenation and remodeling.

References

Mitochondrial Health: Why Your Cells May Be Running Low on Energy and How Peptide Therapy May Help

Post author By wpusername0495
Post date August 5, 2026

Mitochondrial Health: Why Your Cells May Be Running Low on Energy and How Peptide Therapy May Help

Your Body Runs on Trillions of Tiny Power Plants

Every second of every day, your body performs millions of tasks without you ever thinking about them. Your heart beats, your lungs breathe, your brain processes information, your muscles contract, and your cells constantly repair and replace themselves. Every one of those processes requires energy.

That energy doesn’t come directly from the food you eat or the coffee you drink. Instead, your body converts those nutrients into a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP), often referred to as the body’s “energy currency.” ATP powers virtually every process that keeps you alive, from contracting your heart muscle to allowing your brain to process information and your muscles to recover after exercise.

The remarkable structures responsible for producing ATP are tiny organelles inside nearly every cell called mitochondria. Most of us remember learning that mitochondria are the “powerhouses of the cell,” but scientists now know they are much more than simple energy factories. They regulate metabolism, respond to stress, communicate with the rest of the cell, and help determine how efficiently our cells produce energy throughout life.

As our understanding of mitochondria has grown, researchers have discovered a fascinating group of naturally occurring molecules called mitochondrial-derived peptides. These peptides are being studied because they support mitochondrial health through different biological mechanisms alongside the foundations of good health, including proper nutrition, regular exercise, quality sleep, and hormone optimization when appropriate. Three peptides have received particular attention: MOTS-c, SS-31, and Humanin, all of which are part of the growing field of peptide therapy.

Each works differently, but all share a common goal: helping mitochondria function more efficiently so cells can better produce the energy needed to support overall health and healthy aging.

What Are Mitochondrial-Derived Peptides?

Mitochondrial-derived peptides (MDPs) are naturally occurring signaling molecules produced by the mitochondria themselves. Rather than simply making energy, these peptides help mitochondria communicate with the rest of the cell, respond to stress, and support healthy cellular function.

Although several mitochondrial-derived peptides have been identified, three have received the most attention because each supports mitochondrial health in a different way. MOTS-c, SS-31, and Humanin each target a different aspect of mitochondrial function. One helps improve how your cells produce energy, another helps repair the mitochondria’s energy-producing machinery, and the third helps protect healthy cells during times of stress.

Together, these peptides represent one of the most exciting areas of regenerative and longevity medicine because they focus on supporting the health of the mitochondria, the structures responsible for producing the energy every cell in your body depends on.

MOTS-c: Helping Your Cells Produce Energy More Efficiently

One of the biggest reasons MOTS-c has generated so much excitement is its potential to improve how your cells produce energy.

Think of MOTS-c as a signal that tells your cells, “It’s time to become more efficient.” When that signal is sent, your body shifts toward producing energy rather than storing it. Your cells become better at using glucose and fat for fuel, allowing your mitochondria to produce ATP, the body’s energy source, more efficiently.

Because MOTS-c activates many of the same pathways stimulated during exercise, it’s often referred to as an exercise mimetic. That doesn’t mean it replaces exercise. Instead, it appears to reinforce many of the same healthy metabolic adaptations that occur during regular physical activity.

Rather than providing a temporary burst of energy like caffeine, MOTS-c is being used to help your cells naturally produce energy more efficiently from the inside out. By improving how your mitochondria generate ATP, MOTS-c has become an exciting option for supporting metabolic health, healthy aging, and individuals looking to optimize their cellular energy production.

SS-31: Helping Repair Your Cellular Power Plants

If MOTS-c is designed to help your cells produce more energy, SS-31 focuses on improving the machinery that produces that energy.

Inside every mitochondrion is a specialized inner membrane where ATP is made. Over time, aging, chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and disease can damage this membrane, making it harder for mitochondria to efficiently produce the energy your cells need.

Think of SS-31 as helping repair and stabilize your cellular power plants. Rather than forcing your mitochondria to work harder, it helps them work better. Healthier mitochondria produce ATP more efficiently while creating less oxidative stress, allowing your cells to function more effectively.

One of the things that makes SS-31 unique is that it works directly inside the mitochondria instead of simply sending signals from outside the cell. By helping stabilize the membrane where ATP is produced, SS-31 supports healthier energy production and helps protect mitochondria from ongoing oxidative damage. Because of this unique mechanism, SS-31 has become an exciting peptide for supporting mitochondrial health, healthy aging, and conditions where mitochondrial dysfunction plays a role.

Humanin: Helping Protect Your Cells During Stress

While MOTS-c helps your cells produce energy and SS-31 helps repair the mitochondria, Humanin serves a different purpose—it helps protect healthy cells during times of stress.

Every day, your cells are exposed to stress from aging, inflammation, illness, poor sleep, environmental toxins, and even normal metabolism. Over time, that stress can damage cells and mitochondria, making it harder for them to produce energy and function properly.

Think of Humanin as hitting the pause button on unnecessary cell death. When a healthy cell is under temporary stress, Humanin helps block the signals that would otherwise tell that cell to shut down, giving it time to recover and continue producing energy.

This is important because not every stressed cell needs to die. Sometimes a cell simply needs time to recover. By helping healthy cells survive long enough to repair themselves, Humanin supports healthier mitochondria and helps preserve the body’s natural ability to produce energy as we age.

Rather than increasing ATP production directly, Humanin focuses on protecting the cells and mitochondria responsible for producing it. By helping healthy cells survive periods of stress, Humanin may support healthier brain function, cardiovascular health, metabolic health, and overall healthy aging.

The Bottom Line

Mitochondrial health is one of the fastest-growing areas of medicine because nearly every cell in your body depends on healthy mitochondria to produce energy. As our understanding of these cellular power plants continues to grow, so does our ability to support them.

While mitochondrial peptides are exciting, they are not a replacement for the fundamentals of good health. Proper nutrition, regular exercise, quality sleep, stress management, and hormone optimization when appropriate remain the foundation of long-term health. These therapies are designed to complement those healthy habits, not replace them.

If you’re struggling with low energy, poor recovery, brain fog, or simply don’t feel like yourself despite doing all the right things, it may be time to look deeper than just treating the symptoms. Supporting your mitochondrial health may be one piece of the puzzle.

At Axios Health and Wellness in Longmont, Colorado, we focus on identifying the root cause of your symptoms and developing an individualized treatment plan based on your health goals. If you’d like to learn whether mitochondrial peptide therapy may be appropriate for you, we’d love to help.

Call us at 720-899-9400 or visit axioshealthco.com to schedule your consultation. We also offer telehealth visits for patients in select states.

About the Authors

This article was co-written by Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA, and Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC.

Their goal is to help patients better understand the science behind their health and make informed decisions through evidence-based, personalized care.

Jay Griffin, FNP-C, CRNFA

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Founder, Axios Health & Wellness

Lacey Fisher, FNP-BC, PMHNP-BC

Board-Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
Board-Certified Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
Hormone Optimization Specialist
Axios Health & Wellness

Frequently Asked Questions

What are mitochondria, and why are they important?

Mitochondria are tiny structures found inside nearly every cell in your body. They convert the food you eat into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy your cells need to function. In addition to producing energy, mitochondria help regulate metabolism, cellular signaling, and healthy aging.

What are mitochondrial-derived peptides?

Mitochondrial-derived peptides (MDPs) are naturally occurring signaling molecules produced by the mitochondria. They help support mitochondrial function and cellular health through different biological mechanisms. Three of the best-known mitochondrial peptides are MOTS-c, SS-31, and Humanin.

What is the difference between MOTS-c, SS-31, and Humanin?

Although all three support mitochondrial health, they work differently.

MOTS-c helps your cells become more efficient at producing energy.
SS-31 helps repair and stabilize the mitochondria responsible for making ATP.
Humanin helps protect healthy cells during periods of stress, allowing them time to recover and continue functioning.

Together, they target different aspects of mitochondrial health.

Can mitochondrial peptides replace exercise and a healthy lifestyle?

No. Mitochondrial peptides are intended to complement—not replace—the foundations of good health. Regular exercise, proper nutrition, quality sleep, stress management, and hormone optimization when appropriate remain the most important factors for maintaining healthy mitochondria and overall wellness.

Who may benefit from mitochondrial peptide therapy?

People experiencing low energy, slower recovery, brain fog, or age-related declines in vitality may be candidates for mitochondrial peptide therapy. Because symptoms can have many causes, it’s important to undergo a comprehensive medical evaluation to determine whether mitochondrial dysfunction may be contributing and whether peptide therapy is appropriate.

References:

Lee C, Kim KH, Cohen P. MOTS-c: A mitochondrial-derived peptide regulating muscle and fat metabolism. Free Radical Biology and Medicine

Szeto HH. First-in-class cardiolipin-protective compound as a therapeutic agent to restore mitochondrial bioenergetics. British Journal of Pharmacology.

Yen K, Lee C, Mehta H, Cohen P. The emerging role of the mitochondrial-derived peptide Humanin in stress resistance, metabolism, and healthy aging. Aging

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